Employee Motivation

CONTENTS

I. Employee Motivation 1

Introduction 1

Importance of Employee Motivation 1

II. Theories on motivation 1

Hierarchy of Needs – Abraham Maslow 2

Activation theory – Scott et al 4

Motivation/hygiene Theory – Frederick Herzberg 5

Theory X, theory Y – Douglas McGregor 6

Expectancy theory – Victor H. Vroom 8

Goal setting theory – Locke 10

Social comparison theory – Festinger 12

Attribution theory – Kelley 14

Hawthorne studies – Elton Mayo 15

 

III. Conclusion 16

List of References 17

I. Employee Motivation

1.  Introduction

This term paper will examine the various aspects of employee motivation by examining theories relating to motivation. Practical implications on managers in their day to day activities will also be examined where applicable. Due to the paucity of research on employee motivation carried out in Sri Lanka it is difficult to test the validity of the many theories presented to the Sri Lankan environment. However, it is possible to argue that the theories presented have been tested under various conditions prevailing all over the world and should generally stand true in Sri Lanka. Therefore it is possible to generalize on the concepts and models presented and apply them to the Sri Lankan situation without suffering any loss of objectivity.

Importance of Employee Motivation

 

The impact of motivation on work performed is of great importance to management. If management is ‘the art of getting work done through others’ then effective management must mean that ‘making people want to do the work’. It is therefore evident that a motivated workforce is required if the work is to be performed effectively and efficiently.

 

II. Theories on Motivation

 

 

Many theories on motivation have been put forward, however only the following key theories will be examined:

Hierarchy of Needs – Abraham Maslow

Activation theory – Scott et al

Motivation/hygiene theory – Frederick Herzberg

Theory X, theory Y – Douglas McGregor

Expectancy theory – Victor H. Vroom

Goal setting theory – Locke

Social comparison theory – Festinger

Attribution theory – Kelley

Hawthorne studies – Elton Mayo et al

1. Hierarchy of Needs – Abraham Maslow

Abraham Maslow (1908 – 1970) suggested that a person is motivated to satisfy an ascending series of needs, which fall into a hierarchy or pyramid of five categories. In ascending order these are:

physiological needs, such as food, clothing, shelter, sex etc;

safety and security needs i.e. freedom from danger;

social or love needs referring to the need to belong;

esteem needs refers to self esteem and the esteem of others;

self actualization needs refers to the development of an individual to his fullest potential.

 

Maslow puts forward the proposition that needs are, in the simplest way, satisfied one after the other. Implying that as a need is satisfied it ceases to be a motivator and the person will look to satisfy the next need in the hierarchy and so on. However, if while trying to satisfy a higher group of needs a lower need recurs the individual will turn his attention to it.

 

Three important points have to be recognized in understanding this theory, they are:

the hierarchy closely resembles the development of a person from birth to maturity – the infant first needs food and warmth, safety and love as it grows up, gradually needs to develop a reasonable self assurance and finally emerges as a self motivated adult requiring achievement;

the disappearance of needs as they are satisfied and the emergence of others as motivators is a process which is unconscious, for example on being recruited an employee immediately requires promotion, recognition and status and will soon forget the satisfaction that he initially obtained on being recruited;

as Maslow points the five steps in the process is not rigid and that there is a certain degree of interaction between them. Most members of society are partially satisfied or partially dissatisfied in all levels of the hierarchy.

 

Maslow’s theory also suggests that if a man is thwarted in satisfying his basic needs then higher level of needs will not arise. Thwarting of a need is something that the individual does not do himself, but is imposed on him by the external environment. Since managers control the work environment this fact is of extreme importance.

 

 

Critics have identified a number of weaknesses in highlighted in Maslow’s theory. Maslow states that lower level needs have to be satisfied prior to the satisfaction of higher level needs, but exceptions exist where lower level needs are foregone to satisfy higher level needs, examples being ‘the starving artist’. Employees may satisfy their esteem needs outside the organization by being involved in charities or being the coach of a winning cricket team etc. More serious critics have carried out Studies show that this theory is more relevant in explaining the behaviour of simians rather than human beings.

 

In Sri Lanka managers still use salary and other pecuniary means to encourage subordinates to perform their job with greater dedication and effort. The following statement of Maslow’s is of great importance in understanding the psyche of well paid staff.

 

Another peculiar characteristic of the human organism when it is dominated by a certain need is that the whole philosophy of the future tends also to change. For our chronically and extremely hungry man, Utopia can be defined very simply as a place where there is plenty of food. He tends to think that, if he is guaranteed food for the rest of his life, he will be perfectly happy and will never want anything more. Life itself tends to be defined in terms of eating. Anything else will be defined as unimportant. Freedom, love, community feeling, respect, philosophy, may all be waived aside as fripperies since they fail to fill the stomach. Such a man would be fairly said to live by bread alone. (Sutermeister, 1976: 120)

 

What the above quotation indicates is that man will be motivated only by something that he does not still possess, not by what he already has achieved. A person who already earns a satisfactory salary will not be motivated to work harder for a higher salary but would prefer leisure instead of spending more time at work. In Maslow’s words "man will be motivated by bread only where there is no bread".

2. Activation Theory – Scott et al

 

 

A number of researchers suggest that the degree of activation of a person is a major determinant of the power to perform. The term activation refers to the degree of general excitation of the brain from stimulation by all sources. For example bright lights, noise, and caffeine tend to increase the activation level whereas dull colours routine tend to lower it. The relationship between a person’s performance and his activation or arousal level is generally described as an inverted ‘U’. At low activation levels, performance is handicapped by low level of alertness, a decrease in sensory sensitivity, and a lack of muscular co-ordination; at intermediate levels of activation, performance is optimal; and at high level of activation, performance is again handicapped, this time by hypertension, loss of muscular control. For example "jet lag" is partially caused by fatigue which interferes with proper mental alertness and functioning.

 

Thus we see that not only does the internal need state of a person energize the person but the variety and complexity of stimulus setting can also determine the level of energy a person possesses any point in time. If the internal need is great and/or the stimulus configuration is complex (challenging), we would expect more activity on the part of person than if the need is small and/or the stimulus configuration simple (boring).

 

Once the environmental and internal cues are such that a person is aroused to act, why that person chooses a particular act or level of action? A person’s energy is directed towards a goal or objective based on his value system.

 

Sri Lankan managers can implement this theory especially on the factory floor where the workers need to be more active and alert. The use of loudspeakers, flashing lights and bells can ensure that the activation level of workers is maintained at a productive optimal.

 

 

Motivation/hygiene Theory – Frederick Herzberg

 

One of the most important concepts of motivation at work to stem from Maslow’s views is that put forward by Professor Frederick Herzberg, another American Psychologist who developed the ‘motivation/hygiene’ theory.

 

The origins of this theory lie in research by Herzberg into what people think about their jobs – what made them happy or unhappy, satisfied or dissatisfied – by investigating the events in the lives of a number of engineers and accountants. These investigations have been carried out many times since by other researchers, with many kinds of people and in many countries and there is a high degree of verification of the results.

 

The research indicates that factors that caused satisfaction at work and genuine motivation were of a different nature from, and has to be thought separately from those that caused dissatisfaction. By this it is implied that the removal of a dissatisfier does not bring about satisfaction but rather brought about no dissatisfaction. As a result satisfaction and dissatisfaction are not opposites. In Herzberg’s point of view the opposite of job satisfaction is no job satisfaction and the opposite of job dissatisfaction is no job dissatisfaction.

 

Factors that contribute to the avoidance of dissatisfaction are named hygiene or maintenance factors whereas those that bring about job satisfaction are called motivators.

 

An employee’s situation – the actual job that he performs conditions surrounding and attached to it such as pay supervision etc are a mix of hygiene factors as well as motivating factors. The job should be kept ‘clean’ with the use of hygiene factors to bring about a situation of no job dissatisfaction however this would not motivate the employee.

 

The research that was carried out by Herzberg established that it was possible to distinguish between motivators and hygiene factors. Hygiene factors include security, status, working relationships, salary, working conditions, supervision and company policy and administration. Motivating factors include psychological growth, advancement, responsibility, the work itself, recognition and achievement.

 

In the motivation/hygiene theory needs are categorized into two groups:

 

Animal needs. These relate to the animal needs of men such as satisfying hunger or avoiding pain, together with the learned drives associated with them such as earning money.

Spiritual needs. This second group takes into account those qualities which are uniquely human such as the need for achievement and psychological growth – the upper end of Maslow’s hierarchy.

 

Hygiene factors will maintain performance and motivating factors are needed to achieve increase in productivity and performance.

 

In Sri Lanka managers tend to motivate employees through emphasis on salary, working conditions and supervision, however these cause no job dissatisfaction and consequently does not motivate, as the motivating factors are not present.

 

4. Theory X, theory Y – Douglas Mcgregor

 

Douglas McGregor (1906 – 1964) - an American management consultant - carried out studies on management and employee motivation. He described the various assumptions managers make about the behaviour of employees. McGregor compared traditional management philosophy of direction and control with the more modern approach of job satisfaction and the uplifting of human spirit as a motivating force. He called the two propositions ‘Theory X’ and ‘Theory Y’ respectively.

 

Theory ‘X’ (‘traditional’ view). Theory X forms the traditional management philosophy of direction and control. The manager tells the people what to do and resorts frequently to rewards and punishments to get things done. The ‘Theory X’ manager works under the following assumptions:

 

 

The average human being has a dislike for work and will avoid it if he can;

Because of this particular characteristic, most people must be coerced, controlled, directed and threatened with punishment to get them to put forth adequate effort towards the achievement of organizational objectives;

The average human being prefers to be directed, wishes to avoid responsibility, has relatively little ambition and above all desires security.

 

Theory ‘Y’ (‘modern’ view). Theory Y, in contrast is a new management philosophy based upon the findings of the social scientists and rests upon the following assumptions:

 

the expenditure of physical or mental effort in work is natural as play or rest;

External controls or the threats of punishments are not the only means of achieving organizational objectives. Man will exercise self-direction and self-control in the service of objectives to which he is committed;

Commitment to objectives is a function of the rewards associated with their achievement. The most significant of such rewards , e.g., the satisfaction of ego and self fulfillment needs, can be the product of efforts directed towards organizational objectives;

the average human being learns under proper conditions not only to accept but to seek responsibility;

the ability to exercise a high degree of imagination, ingenuity and creativity in the solution of organizational problems, is widely not narrowly distributed among the population;

Under the conditions of modern industrial life, the intellectual potentialities of the average human being are only being partially utilized and should be developed further.

 

This proposition represents to widely divergent views of man at work and, if they are adopted in either form, would result in opposite styles of management. However in practice management styles vary considerably.

 

 

5. Expectancy Theory – Victor H. Vroom

 

Tolman initially proposed the expectancy theory of motivation (also known as the Instrumentality Theory) in 1932 as a part of his purposive psychology of behaviour. He argued that a person’s purpose in behaving must be analyzed with the person’s perceived likelihood that an action will lead to a certain outcome or goal. Several theorists later offered further conceptual additions to this theory, Vroom (1964) was the first to relate the theory to motivation in the work environment. Among today’s industrial and organizational psychologists, expectancy theory is a widely accepted theory of motivation.

 

Vroom defines motivation as a process governing choices made by persons among alternative forms of voluntary activity. Vroom also stated that:

 

Although some behaviours, especially those that are not under voluntary control, are defined as unmotivated, these constitute a rather small proportion of the total behaviour of adult human beings. It is reasonable to assume that most of the behaviour exhibited by individuals on their jobs as well as their behavior in the ‘job market’ is voluntary and consequently motivated. (Vroom, 1964: 9)

 

A number of independent concepts need to be described to understand this theory. These include first and second level outcomes, valence, instrumentality, expectancy force and ability.

 

First and second level outcomes. The first-level outcomes resulting from behaviour are those associated with the work itself. Such outcomes include job performance, productivity, turnover and absenteeism. Second-level outcomes are the events which first level outcomes are likely to produce, such as money, promotion, supervisor support, group acceptance and fringe benefits.

 

 

Valence. The concept of valence is based on the assumption that a person has preferences or affective orientations toward various outcomes or state of nature. An outcome is positively valent when a person prefers attaining it to not attaining it. An outcome has a valence of zero when a person is indifferent to attaining it or not attaining it. An outcome is negatively valent when a person prefers not to attain it to attaining it. The concept applies to both first level and second level outcomes. For example a person may like to join a group – first level outcome – which the person believes will enhance his position in the community. A person may desire to perform his job effectively, because he believes that good performance will lead to promotion.

 

Instrumentality. This refers to the individual’s perception of the relationship between first-level outcomes and second level outcomes. In the example offered above, instrumentality is the extent to which status in the community will, in fact, result from membership in a particular group. Vroom (1964) suggests that:

 

. . . can take values ranging from –1, indicating the belief that the attainment of the second outcome is certain without the first outcome and impossible with it, to +1, indicating that the first outcome is believed to be a necessary and sufficient condition for the attainment of the second outcome. (Vroom,1964:18)

 

Expectancy. The specific outcomes attained by a person are dependent not only on the choices that the person makes but also on the events beyond his or her control. For example, the student enrolling in a program of business studies is seldom certain that the program will be successfully completed. Vroom defined expectancy as the momentary belief concerning the likelihood or subjective probability of particular act or behaviour will be followed by a particular outcome. As such the expectancy relates the action-outcome relationship and has a vague range from 0, indicating total doubt that an act will be followed by an outcome, to +1, indicating certainty that the act will be followed by a particular outcome.

Ability. The term ability usually denotes a potential for performing a task or a capacity to work which may or may not be utilized. It refers to what a person can do rather than to what a person will do.

 

Since Vroom presented his theory in 1964 several modifications and extensions have been offered by various researchers. Three reviews of empirical research have been carried out. Mitchell and Biglan (1971) reviewed 6 studies in the area of industrial psychology; Heneman and schwab (1972) reviewed research design and measurement issues connected with 9 field studies in managerial settings; and Wahba and House (1972) reviewed 14 empirical studies. These reviews show that some of the propositions of expectancy theory have been supported. However, a fully developed test incorporating force, expectancy and instrumentality measures as well as ability assessment has not yet been offered. Therefore the predictive potential of this theory is largely untested.

 

Although the motivation of employees cannot always be reduced to a simple formula, the concepts of expectancy theory do suggest several prescriptions for managers in dealing with individuals and groups. Gailbraith and Cummings suggest the following: (1) The components of an organizational reward system, such as money, fringe benefits and promotion must be desired by the employee; i.e. they must be positively valent in the employees order of preferences. (2) The employee must perceive that variations in the performance level will lead to variations in the amount of reward received; the difference between performance and reward must be significantly different from zero.

 

6. Goal-setting theory - Locke

 

 

Although expectancy theory has been the most popular explanation of worker motivation it has not had much impact in on-the-job settings as has goal-setting theory. According to Locke (1976), expectancy theory as currently formulated is nothing more than reducing man to a pleasure-seeker which infers that the individual consciously chooses the course of action that leads to the greatest degree of pleasure or the smallest degree of pain. Locke criticizes expectancy theory for failing to see that the pleasure-seeking behaviour are alone insufficient to determine an individual’s value system, but he also notes that values alone are insufficient to determine a person’s behaviour. Locke further states that a person does not carry out work to achieve pleasure but rather is motivated to work so as to achieve goals. He also states that: "Even when pleasure is a casual factor in choice, an individual’s focus in acting is typically on the object of the action (the goal) rather than on pleasure"

 

Thus, in goal setting theory there seems to be two cognitive determinants of behaviour: values and intentions. Locke offers two definitions of values: "A value is that which acts to gain or keep"; "It is that which is conducive to one’s welfare". Locke goes on to state that the forms in which one experience one’s value judgements are emotions. For Locke the most fundamental effects of goals on mental or physical action are directive in nature. They guide an individual’s thoughts in one direction or the other. Locke states that not every goal leads to an activity or an end specified by the goal. A particular goal may not lead to an efficacious action because it conflicts with the person’s other goals. The situation at a given time may be perceived as inappropriate for action. An individual may not have sufficient knowledge, ability or determination to carry out his plan of action. Even abortive action is typically initiated and guided by conscious goals, and such action may be highly correlated with the action intended.

 

A considerable amount of work has been carried out to test the linkages between the goal setting and action. Although this work has been confined to a few investigators and some rather constrained settings, the support is impressive. Lock and his associates carried out lab experiments to determine effects of goals on performance. They found that the higher the intended level of achievement among their subjects, the higher the level of performance. Even individuals who tried for goals that were so high that the goals were rarely achieved, performed better than the individuals who relatively easy goals.

 

Researchers have found that goal setting not only affects performance but also has a direct effect on satisfaction. Satisfaction has been described as the cognitive comparison between an individual’s perception of his outcome at a task and his expectations about the outcome. When a situation is perceived as yielding less than expected, the individual will be less satisfied than when it is perceived as yielding as much as expected. Although most of the support for goal setting theory comes from laboratory experiments empirical studies carried out by many researchers also establishes the importance of goal setting as an important motivational tool.

 

Thus there seems to be no dispute that goal setting is a cause of performance. If a manager knows what a person expects or values, what goals a person has, and what rewards the person finds reinforcing, then the manager has the tools needed to channel the energy of the person in a given direction.

7. Social comparison theory

 

 

Another cognitive approach to explaining worker motivation is social comparison. Festinger developed the early social comparison framework. Festinger hypothesized that people possessed a drive to evaluate their opinions and attitudes. People prefer to use objective criteria, if such criteria exist. Festinger went on to state that when no objective criteria was available people compare themselves with others having the same ability and opinions. The impact of the work of Festinger is evident in the equity theory presented by Adams. Adams states that individuals compare the ratio of their inputs and outcomes to the input and outcomes of other people. If an inequality is seen in the above comparison, individuals will act to reduce the perceived deprivation or overpayment. An individual may alter his inputs and outcomes or the inputs or outcomes of the person he is comparing himself to or may cognitively distort any of the four variables. The individual may choose a different comparison person or may even leave the work situation. Empirical evidence suggests that some people will increase their inputs if they perceive that they are being over-rewarded. Evidence also exists to support that over-rewarded people will actively attempt to increase the outcome of others. However more definitive evidence is available for persons who perceive that they are under-rewarded. Adams states that individuals will take a course of action which is least costly to them, but will typically reduce their level of inputs – put forth less effort, make fewer personal sacrifices, or leave the organization or leave the organization if corrective action is not forthcoming.

 

However, Adams’ equity theory has been criticized mainly for the way in which it analyzes the process by which it chooses a comparative. Goodman carried out research on this problem and concluded that a stimulus event triggers a search program. After an individual finds a comparison person, a testing procedure is enacted and comparisons take place. The referents may be the individual himself in a earlier period, other individuals in the organization, or the system as a whole.

 

Further research has also shown that the level of satisfaction or dissatisfaction with the outcomes received to be a function of the two comparisons. The first comparison involves his or her actual performance with his or hers expected performance. The second involves comparison of actual performance and expected performance of a reference person.

 

 

With regard to these comparisons subjects who met their goals were significantly more satisfied that subjects who failed to meet their goals. It was also discovered that when the outcomes of the person exceeded the outcomes of the reference person the subject was more satisfied than when they fell short.

 

Further this study indicated that there was little difference in satisfaction among individuals who exceeded their goals and persons who exceeded their reference persons performance and individuals who did both. The least satisfied individuals were by far the individuals who failed to exceed their own goals and failed to exceed the reference person’s performance. This indicates that an individual has a flexible method of assessing performance with reward: by achieving goals set – internal comparison – and by exceeding reference person’s performance – external comparison – but not necessarily both.

 

Thus we see that whereas goal setting theory and expectancy theory explain the determinants of performance levels, social comparison theory explains how a person assess the appropriateness of that performance level and the resulting reward.

 

Social comparison theory extends our understanding of worker motivation and the ability to predict worker performance and satisfaction. The theory formulated by Adams is especially relevant as it bring into light how determinants of satisfaction and reward.

 

As we have seen the appropriateness of performance is determined by comparison with external comparison. Managers should realize that to a great extent future performance is determined by goals set and rewards offered. When employees perceive failure in performance and/or reward iniquity their satisfaction is reduced. If this situation is not corrected the employee’s dissatisfaction with self or others would cause a fall in performance, valences and goals.

 

The most difficult task that managers face is some form of perception where underpayment or relative depravation which affects worker productivity. It is extremely difficult to change this perception of deprivation for all the staff within a business organization, but it may be possible to manage the consequences of perceived deprivation more effectively.

 

 

Some practical recommendations can be made to managers in the Sri Lankan context from equity formulations. It would seem that the entire process of performance evaluation must be an explicit public process, perhaps with some form of adjudication or appeal. At least the organization should make explicit what inputs are valued highly for individual employees. Similarly outcomes in such companies should be tied to such inputs. Employees normally over-estimate the salary received by others, this is harmful as it leads to the worker reducing his own input to remedy the perceived iniquity.

 

Policies of secrecy with regards to pay should be evaluated to ensure that false perceptions do not exist. Managers should be aware that different employees choose different methods of comparison: salaried individuals compare themselves with values they themselves have established, whereas professionals compare themselves with other professionals. The fact that a person may be well rewarded by intra-organizational standards does not ensure a high level of performance, if others in the industry are being better rewarded.

 

Attribution theories

 

The most well developed theoretical notion of this approach is what Kelly has termed the ‘discounting principle’. Kelley states, "the role of a given cause in producing a given effect is discounted if other plausible causes are present". This theory has been proven many times in demonstrations with both interpersonal and individual task situations.

 

In the interpersonal situations it was noted that causes of another’s action are a function of personal and environmental forces, and the worker will discount impact of the environment on the work performed by him.

 

Bem (1972) carried out studies on self-perception within a social context. He stated that external pressures would dictate the extent to which a person would attribute his own actions to internal and external causes. This implies that a person who works in a situation of where there exists extreme rewards or punishments would assume that he is under the control of the external environment. However if such extreme controls do not exist then the worker would assume that work is carried out the way he wants and that work is intrinsically motivated. Conversely when the employee perceives that he is strictly controlled then he is extrinsically motivated.

 

Although the distinction between extrinsic and intrinsic motivation may be of academic interest the importance of the concept stems from the fact that the two types of motivation may not be strictly supportive. For example if you pay people for something they already enjoy doing they will soon enjoy it less and if the pay is later withdrawn they will expend less effort doing it.

 

However other theorists argue that extrinsic rewards may not lower intrinsic motivation if the rewards are not contingently administered according to the individual level of performance. It can be seen that this theory is at odds with the expectancy theory, goal setting theory and social comparison theory as regards to contingent reinforcement on worker motivation. Little empirical evidence exists to support this theory which in effect categorizes increased monetary benefits as a demotivator.

 

 

Hawthorne studies – Elton Mayo

 

The emphasis of the Hawthorne studies was on the worker and not on the work. Unlike Taylor and the scientific managers, the research at Hawthorne were primarily concerned with studying people, especially their social relationships at work. Their conclusions were that man is a social animal at work as well as outside it, and that membership of a group is important to individuals. Group membership leads to the establishment of informal groups within the formal groups established by the corporate structure.

 

The Hawthorne studies consisted of five stages:

First stage – This stage considered the effect that lighting had on output. The experimenters chose two groups, one acted as the control group, whereas the other acted as the experimental group. As the lighting was reduced the output of both groups continued to increase.

Second stage – Relay assembly test room. Six women from the relay assembly were segregated from the rest of the workers and numerous changes were made to the working conditions. The changes made were for the better or the worse but whatever the change made the output of the six women continued to increase. This phenomenon later became known as ‘the Hawthorne effect’, where productivity increased due the group identifying that they were a special group.

 

 

Stage three- Interviews were carried out and from these it became clear that interpersonal relationships were of importance in determining the attitude of workers.

Stage four – Bank wiring test room. Where fourteen workers were put together and their behaviour was closely monitored. The group developed their own values and set limits on output and undermined the company’s wage incentive scheme.

Final stage – Counselling. The counsellors encouraged the employees to discuss their problems at work and this led to improvements in personal adjustments, employee-supervisor relations and employee-management relations.

 

Many criticisms have been leveled at these studies. Elton Mayo might have been biased so as to interpret the findings in such a way that they suited the theory put forward by him about Man and industrial society. Elton Mayo and his colleagues overlooked important factors in assessing their results. Some of the methods used to test evidence were unreliable. However these studies form an important milestone as these were the first to carry out genuine social research and raised many other questions which led to the development of management.

 

 

III. Conclusion

 

 

 

Employee motivation has been a key area in management research and is a vital component in trying to understand the behaviour of Man at work. The many theories presented do not present explanations as to how any one individual will react to any given situation but is rather a study of rational groups of individuals and their reactions to external stimuli. It is evident that any one theory will not be able to completely explain the true nature of motivation. However, the theories presented above give valuable insight to the manager in understanding the behaviour of employees and to a great extent predicting the outcome of decisions to be made. Thereby enabling the manager to be able to ‘make people want to do the work’.

 

List of References

 

 

Argyris, Chris, Understanding Organizational Behaviour I.: Tavistock, 1978.

 

Integrating the Individual and the Organization: New York, III. , Wiley, 1990

 

McGregor, Douglas, The Human Side of Enterprise New York, III.: McGraw hill, 1985

 

Herzberg, Frederick, Work and the Nature of Man New York, I.: World Publishing, 1966

 

Hamner, W. Clay and Organ, Dennis W., Organizational Behavior: An Applied Psychological Approach Dallas, I.: Business Publications, 1978.

Sutermeister, Robert A., People and Productivity New York, III.: McGraw-Hill, 1976.

 

Cole, Gerald A., Management: Theory and Practice London, IV.: DP Publications, 1993.

 

Vroom, Victor H., Work and Motivation New York, Wiley, 1964.